Local River Area History
Prepared by Captain W. F. Raynolds
Missouri – Platte – Yellowstone Rivers & Tributaries (1859-1861)
Ref: US War
Department Map of the Yellowstone & Missouri Rivers and Their Tributaries,
Maynadier, 10th Inf. Assistant. Released 1867
Sunday, November 01, 2009
North of the Platte, the principal streams flowing eastward are the White, Niobrara,
Shayenne, Moreau, Palanata or Grand, Cannon Ball, and Heart rivers. Of these,
the White and Niobrara, receiving their supply of water from the outliers of
the Black Hills and the high lands north of the Platte, are large streams, and
always contribute considerable water to the Missouri. The Shayenne is much the
most important tributary between the Platte and Yellowstone. It is formed by
two main branches which entirely surround and drain the Black Hills, and as it
receives its water from the numerous mountain streams of this district, its
supply is much more constant and reliable than that of any of the other rivers
to the north. Its valley below the forks is from half to three-quarters of a
mile in width of alluvial soil, and covered with a heavy growth of bottom
grass. Beautiful cottonwood groves fringe its banks throughout its whole
length. This portion of the river receives several tributaries, but all are
prairie streams, and consequently contain little water during a great portion
of the year. The riverbed is mainly quicksand, and great care is consequently
requisite in finding fords. The bluffs bordering the valley below the forks are
bold, and in most instances access to the river bottom from the neighboring
plains is difficult if not impracticable. Wherever the bluffs have been
subjected to the action of water they present the stratified clay formation of
the " bad lands." Above the forks the bluffs are found close to the
stream, and the valley becomes narrower. The tributaries are clear, and
constant mountain creeks flowing through beautiful valleys. The whole region of
the Black Hills is unquestionably destined at no distant date to afford homes
for a thriving population. The mountains will furnish a sufficient supply of
pine lumber for ordinary uses, and, although timber is very scarce in the
region as a whole, yet the Black Hills will fully supply this great deficiency
in the district immediately adjoining.
The Moreau or Owl, the Grand or Pell, the Cannon Ball, and the Heart rivers
occur in the order named, and are mere prairie streams of unusual length. In
the dry season they contribute little water to the Missouri, but their beds
indicate that, at certain seasons, they are formidable torrents. The banks of
these streams are lined with a narrow fringe of cottonwoods. Beyond these, and
yet east of the outlying ridge, are two important rivers the Knife and the
Chan-cho-ka, or Little Missouri-flowing to the northeast, instead of to the
east, as was the case with the others. The Little Missouri rises in the Black
Hills, whence it receives a constant and considerable supply of water, and its
length is over 200 miles. This stream having more timber upon its banks than
its neighbors, is called by the Indians "Chan-cho-ka," or Thick Timbered
River. The title, however, is only comparative, and should not create the
impression that the valley would be elsewhere considered heavily timbered. The
foregoing complete the catalogue of the larger streams east of the outlier
explored partially or completely by the expedition. Upon crossing the outlier
the great valley of the Yellowstone is at once reached. The tributaries of this
river-the Powder, the Tongue, the Rosebud, the Big Horn, Pryor's, and Clark's
forks-all flow to the north until they reach the Yellowstone. Further west the
same is true with reference to the Yellowstone itself, which near its source
flows for more than 100 miles to the northward before changing its course to
the east. The first stream west of the ridge is Powder River, (which derives its
name from the sulphurous vapors rising from burning beds of lignite in its
vicinity,) of which the Little Powder is the main tributary from the east. The
latter rises near Pumpkin Butte, flows through the " bad lands" for
over 100 miles, and joins the main stream in latitude 45º 28'. This stream,
when crossed by us in July 1859, was almost dry. Its valley is wide, and
contains the usual growth of cottonwood. Clear fork is the principal western
tributary of the Powder, and leaves the Big Horn Mountains, in which it takes
its rise, a dashing mountain torrent. Upon its banks is found considerable
pine, which the excellent waterpower of the stream will in time convert into
lumber for the use of the coming settlers. Crazy Woman's fork and Willow creek
are less important tributaries of the Powder, finding their sources in or near
the mountains, and emptying into the main stream above Clear fork. The Powder
itself rises in the Big Horn mountains, about latitude 43~ 25', flows northeast
about 60 miles, then turns to the north, and empties into the Yellowstone in
latitude 46º 42'. Its valley (which is barren and yields but little grass and
an abundance of artemisia) averages a mile in width throughout its entire
length, until within 50 miles from its mouth, it becomes narrower and the
bluffs more ragged and broken. Traveling in it is greatly impeded by deep and
almost impassable ravines, which cross it at nearly right angles, and are
concealed by the sage until their very edge is reached. These gullies are
caused by the action of the water upon the light soil, and are among the most
disagreeable features of the country. The bed of the river is mainly a
treacherous quicksand, and great care is necessary in selecting fords. The
depth of the water is not, however, such as to offer any obstruction, except
during freshets. The bluffs bordering the valley are throughout the
much-dreaded and barren " bad lands," and this stream must ever
remain of little or no value to the country. Tongue river rises in the Big Horn
Mountains, and is in some respects an improvement upon the Powder. Its valley
is narrower, but contains less sage and more grass. The stream flows in the
main over a gravel or stony bottom, and thus presents no especial obstructions
to crossing. The river bottom is less torn up by gullies, and the bluffs are
not as rugged and impassable. Yet the Tongue River valley presents few
attractions to the settler. The soil is light, and the timber chiefly
cottonwood, and scarce-disadvantages that will for years seriously affect its
prospects for settlement and development. The third tributary of the
Yellowstone is the Rosebud, which rises in the Chetish or Wolf Mountains, and,
during our journey in August, 1859, contained no running water. Its valley is
narrow, and resembles that of the Tongue. Near its source, however, are some
open valleys that by contrast appear attractive. The Big Horn, which is next
reached, is the main tributary of the Yellowstone. It is formed by the junction
of the Popo-Azie and Wind rivers, both of which are considerable and noted
streams. Thirty miles below the point of junction the river enters the
mountains, passing through a canyon 20 miles in length, after which it flows
among broken and barren hills, occasionally interspersed with small level valleys.
During this part of its course, which is nearly 100 miles in extent, it
receives several tributaries, of which the chief are No Wood and No Water
creeks on the east, and Gray Bull and Stinking rivers upon the west. This part
of the country, as will be seen from the detailed statements of Lieutenant
Maynadier's explorations, is repelling in all its characteristics, and can only
be traversed with the greatest difficulty. Below the mouth of the Stinking, the
Big Horn again enters the Big Horn mountains, and passes through a second
canyon of 25 miles in length, emerging in latitude 450 10'. The peculiar
topography of this region, whereby the same river flowing to the north canyons
twice through the same mountain range, is well set forth and made plain in the
rough language of the guide [Jim] Bridger, who said: " The Big Horn
mountains are just the shape of a horseshoe, and the Big
Horn river cuts through both sides, dividing the heel from the
toe." The lower canyon must present a series of views of great magnificence.
The gorge cannot be less than 3,000 feet in depth, and whether the banks are
sloping or perpendicular, the scenery must be grand in the extreme. Bridger,
who claims to have once passed through on a raft, declares that for mingled
sublimity and beauty this canyon is unequalled by any that he has ever seen.
Below this the Big Horn flows some 10º east of north for about 70 miles to its
junction with the Yellowstone. The valley is open, and from two to five miles
in width, being bounded on either side by high rolling prairie hills. Near the
Yellowstone a high spur of the Chetish Mountains, on the top of which is found
a stunted and straggling growth of pines, crosses it. The soil improves as you
ascend towards the mountains, and near the lower canon is very fertile, and
covered with as heavy and luxuriant a crop of grass as could be found upon the
continent. For 30 miles above its mouth the Big Horn flows upon the east side
of its valley, but shifts to the other about half the distance to the mountains.
The expedition forded the Big Horn without trouble about a mile and a half
above its mouth, or about half a mile below the junction of Tullock's creek,
and again about 35 miles above. These fords were well marked by Indian trails
leading to them, and are the principal if not only crossings, as repeated
attempts made at other points by naturalists, hunters, and other members of the
party uniformly failed, the depth of water and rapidity of the current
deterring the most daring. At these fords the water was only from two to two
and a half feet in depth. The riverbed, throughout its entire course below the
mountains, partakes of the general character of the Yellowstone and Missouri,
the stream being crooked and badly cut up by islands and sandbars. Of the tributaries
of the Big Horn below the mountains those upon the west were not visited by us,
nor are they of much importance. Of' those upon the east the firs; is Tullock's
creek, which empties into the main stream about two miles above the
Yellowstone. It rises in the Chetish Mountains, and flows through a timbered
valley about 50 miles in length, so wide that it was mistaken at first for that
of the Big Horn or Yellowstone. The stream itself, however, contains but little
water, and this in October 1859, was found only in pools. The second of the
eastern branches is the Little Horn, or, taking a literal translation of the
Indian name, the "Little Big Horn." This empties into the main stream
about 30 miles above Tullock's creek, and flows through a wide bottom towards
the north, its length being 60 or 70 miles. Upon its upper tributaries several
good camping grounds are found near the base of the mountains. Of the rivers
that unite to form the Big Horn, the Popo-Azie is a short stream, formed by the
union of several branches which rise in the southern part of the Wind River
chain anid to the northward of the South pass. These do not unite until near
the junction of the Popo-Azie with Wind River. Its drainage is entirely from
the mountains and the supply of water is therefore quite constant. Wind river
rises near the northwestern extremity of the Wind River Range and flows to the
southeast parallel with those mountains and between them and the Big Horn
range. Its course is such that a glance at the map leads to an inquiry why it
does not flow into, and form a continuation of, the Platte, instead of abruptly
changing its course and discharging its water through the Big Horn into the
Yellowstone. This is at once solved by an inspection of the profile of our
route between those streams, by which the point of junction of Wind River and
the Popo-Azie is shown to be 200 feet below the level of the Platte at the Red
buttes. Wind river is rapid and filled with boulders, and its valley is narrow
and unproductive. The mountains upon either side are bold and lofty, and
present a constant succession of striking landscapes. At the sources of the
stream is a lofty basaltic ridge, rising from 12,000 to 13,000 feet above the
ocean, stretching across the head of the valley, and connecting the dividing
crest of the Rocky Mountains with the Big Horn range. Near this point and on
the dividing crest, in latitude 43º 28', a peak rises 13,750 feet above the
ocean level, (as determined by angle of elevation taken from route,) which may
justly be considered as the topographical center of North America, the rain
which falls upon its sides being drained into the Gulf of Mexico through the
Mississippi, the Gulf of California through the Colorado, and the Pacific ocean
through the Columbia. I have designated this mountain on the maps as "
Union peak." West of the Big Horn, the other tributaries of the
Yellowstone are Pryor's river, Clark's fork, the Big Rosebud, and Beaver River.
These streams are comparatively short and small, find their sources in the
mountains, and flow to the north. Beyond these is the valley of the upper
Yellowstone, which is, as yet, a terra incognita. My expedition passed entirely
around, but could not penetrate it. My intention was to enter it from the head
of Wind River, but the basaltic ridge previously spoken of intercepted our
route and prohibited the attempt. After this obstacle had thus forced us over
on the western slope of the Rocky mountains, an effort was made to recross and
reach the district in question; but, although it was June, the immense body of
snow baffled all our exertions, and we were compelled to content ourselves with
listening to marvelous tales of burning plains, immense lakes, and boiling
springs, without being able to verify these wonders. I know of but two white
men who claim to have ever visited this part of the Yellowstone valley-James
Bridger and Robert N Meldrum. The narratives of both these men are very
remarkable, and Bridger, in one of his recitals, described an immense boiling
spring that is a perfect counterpart of the Geysers of Iceland. As he is
uneducated, and had probably never heard of the existence of such natural
marvels elsewhere, I have little doubt that he spoke of that which he had
actually seen. The burning plains described by these men may be volcanic, or
more probably burning beds of lignite, similar to those on Powder River, which
are known to be in a state of ignition. Bridger also insisted that immediately
west of the point at which we made our final effort to penetrate this singular
valley, there is a stream of considerable size, which divides and flows down
either side of the water-shed, thus discharging its waters into both the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Having seen this phenomenon on a small scale in
the highlands of Maine, where a rivulet discharges a portion of its waters into
the Atlantic and the remainder into the St. Lawrence, I am prepared to concede
that Bridger's " Two Ocean river" may be a varity. Had our attempt to
enter this district been made a month later in the season, the snow would have
mainly disappeared, and there would have been no insurmountable obstacles to
overcome. I cannot doubt, therefore, that at no very distant day the mysteries
of this region will be fully revealed, and though small in extent, I regard the
valley of the upper Yellowstone as the most interesting unexplored district in
our widely expanded country. The general course of the Yellowstone itself,
after leaving the mountains, is a little north of east through four and a half
degrees of longitude, and then northeast to its junction with the Missouri.
Throughout its entire length it flows through a wide, open valley, bounded by
high, rolling hills. This valley has long been the home of countless herds of
Buffalo and consequently the favorite hunting ground of the Indians. When my
party first reached the bluff overlooking the Yellowstone, the sight was one
which, in a few years, will have passed away forever. I estimated that about 15
miles in length of the wide valley was in view. The entire tract of 40 or 50
square miles was covered with buffalo as thickly as in former days, in the
west, (when cattle were driven to an eastern market,) a pasture field would be,
which was intended only to furnish subsistence to a large drove for a single
night. I will not venture an estimate of their probable numbers. And here I
would remark, that the wholesale destruction of the buffalo is a matter that
should receive the attention of the proper authorities. It is due first and
mainly to the fact that the skin of the female is alone valuable for robes. The
skin of the male, over three years old, is never used for that purpose, the
hair on the hind quarters being not longer than that on a horse, while, on the
fore quarters, it has a length of from four to six inches. The skin is also too
thick and heavy to be used for anything but lodge coverings, while the flesh is
coarse and unpalatable, and is never used for food when any other can be had.
The result is that the females are always singled out by the hunter, and
consequently the males in a herd always exceed the females, it the proportion
of not less than ten to one. Another, but far less important, cause of their
rapid extinction is the immense number of wolves in the country, which destroy
the young. The only remedy that would have the slightest effect in the case
would be a prohibition of the trade of buffalo robes and a premium upon
wolf'skins. I fear it is too late for
even this remedy, and notwithstanding the immense herds that are yet to be
found, I think it is more than probable that another generation will witness
almost the entire extinction of this noble animal. Beyond the upper
Yellowstone, and immediately at the foot of the main divide of the Rocky
Mountains, lies the valley of the Upper Missouri and of the Three Forks. The
Missouri is formed by the junction, in latitude 45º 56', of the Gallatin,
Madison, and Jefferson rivers, streams which take their rise in the Rocky
mountains and have a general northerly course. Their order, in relative
importance, is the reverse of that in which they are named above, the Gallatin
being the least and the Jefferson the greatest, although the difference in size
is not marked. The soil in the valley of the Three Forks is good, the grass
fine, and the streams are all bordered by fringes of trees that add great
beauty to the landscape. The neighboring mountains -are well timbered, and
will, therefore furnish an abundance of lumber for the future settlers, and
there is no part of the field of our exploration that on the whole presents
greater natural advantages than this. Standing upon the bluff north of the
junction of the three rivers, and looking to the south, the eye rests upon a
charming picture of level and fertile valleys, environed by gently-sloping and
grass-clad hills, and divided, to appearance, into immense parks by the
hedge-like fringes of trees lining the river banks. In the distance snowy
ranges of mountains fill the horizon upon all sides, and furnish the delightful
landscape with a pure and appropriate setting. Below the Three Forks the
Missouri flows nearly north for two and a quarter degrees of latitude, passing
through the gate of the mountains and over the Great Falls, and then changes
its course to nearly due east, keeping this general direction through eight
degrees of longitude, ultimately bending to the southeast and mingling its
waters with those of the Mississippi on their way to the Gulf of Mexico. The
tributaries of this great river, between the Platte and the Yellowstone, have
been already described. Of the branches between the Three, Forks and the
Yellowstone I can speak but briefly. Of those flowing from the north and west
the chief are the Sun, the Teton, Maria's river, and Milk river. The two latter
are large and important rivers; but none of these were visited by my
expedition. Of those, which flow from the south the principal, are Smith's
river, the Muscleshell, and Big Dry creek. Smith's river is a mountain stream,
flowing through a narrow valley, which would not be capable of supporting a large
population. Its passage through the mountain gorge is marked by numerous scenes
of striking and romantic beauty. The Judith rises in the Judith Mountains and
flows northward into the Missouri. Near its head there is a small tract of
fertile country, but, as we approach the Missouri, the river becomes less
important, and at the mouth there is but little water in dry seasons within its
banks. Some little doubt has arisen as to the identity of the Muscleshell.
Lieutenant Mullan, of the artillery, in 1852 reached it in a journey to the
southeast from Fort Benton. He describes it as a stream from two to four feet
deep, and with a rapid current, and judged from its banks that, at high water,
it was 120 yards in width. This so much exceeded previously conceived ideas of
its size that Lieutenant Warren concluded that Lieutenant Mullan had reached
the Yellowstone. Lieutenant Mullins, of the dragoons, who commanded my escort,
however, crossed the Muscleshell some 50 miles below where Lieutenant Mullan
saw it, and found only a stream of 30 or 40 yards in width. The day before
Lieutenant Mullins reached its banks I passed its mouth and found there no
running water. I think, therefore, there can be no reasonable doubt that
Lieutenant Mullan was correct in saying that he had reached the Muscleshell,
and that after leaving the mountains the stream gradually sinks in the earth,
growing less in size and importance as it approaches the Missouri. The
evidences at its mouth, however, prove that at times it must be a mighty torrent
draining a vast area of country. Of the Big Dry but little is known, aside from
the general fact that in the wet season it is a pretentious river and at other
times but little else than a dry channel.
NAVIGABLE STREAMS. The Missouri has been navigated to Fort Benton, and
doubtless boats can ascend the short distance from that point to the foot of
the Great Falls, but this has only been accomplished during high water, and the
first steamer that reached Fort Benton, was warped over several of the rapids
above the mouth of the Yellowstone. Lieutenant Maynadier, in his report on the
Yellowstone, expresses the confident conviction that at no distant day boats
will ascend that stream to the mountains. The attempt has not yet been made,
and it is hazardous to predict that science cannot overcome any obstacles that
may be presented, but when the tables of altitudes, prepared from barometric
measurements, are examined the showing is far from favorable to the realization
of Lieutenant Maynadier's hopes. The Yellowstone, at the point at which
Lieutenant Maynadier struck it, below the mouth of Shield's river, is about 200
feet higher than the Missouri at the Three Forks, and 1,700 feet higher than
the Missouri at Fort Benton. Shield's river is but little further than Fort
Benton from the point of junction of the Yellowstone and Missouri, and as the
profile shows a nearly uniform descent in the Yellowstone, it is evident that
the fall of the latter is 1,700 feet greater than that of the former in a
nearly equal distance. Considering the difficulties encountered from the
current of the Missouri, I cannot but think that the navigation of a stream
whose waters possess such a greatly accumulated velocity is at least
problematical. When I was upon the Big Horn I was impressed with the conviction
that that stream could be navigated by boats of proper construction as far as
the lower caion, or about 80 miles from its mouth, but an examination of the
barometric heights shows a fall in this distance of 620 feet, which must create
a current of great power. Hence I can readily understand how Lieutenant
Maynadier failed to appreciate the constant and rapid descent of the
Yellowstone, and I conclude that the objections to the navigability of that
stream are equally valid with reference to the Big Horn.
RAIIROAD AND WAGON ROAD ROUTES. The
country between the outlier and the Missouri is the high, broken prairie of the
west, and but little difficulty will be found, as far as regards grade, in
crossing it either with wagon or railroads in any direction. The district
between the Yellowstone and Missouri from Fort Union, in latitude 48º, as far
south as 46º 30', is believed to be very broken, and, from the nature of the
soil, it will offer great difficulties to the construction of a permanent
roadway. The broad valley of the Yellowstone affords peculiar facilities for a
railroad, and it is, moreover, the most direct route to the important region
about the Three Forks, with all its agricultural and mineral wealth. The only
serious obstacle that would be encountered in this entire distance is the ridge
between the waters of the Gallatin and those of the Yellowstone, and, as this
is shown to be only about 1,700 feet in height, it is believed it could be
crossed without great difficulty, especially as the approaches upon either side
are shown by profiles of our route to be of easy grade. The valley of the
Yellowstone can be reached with comparative facility near its mouth, or near
the junction of the Powder, but between these points the country lying to the
east is represented, by all who have passed over it, as broken, barren, and
impracticable. At the eastern base of the Big Horn mountains there is a belt of
country some 20 miles in width that is peculiarly suitable for a wagon road,
and which I doubt not will become the great line of travel into the valley of
the Three Forks.* Being immediately at the base of the mountains, this strip is
watered by the numerous streams which rise in the hills but soon disappear in
the open country below, while the upheaval of the mountain crest is so uniform
in direction that a comparatively straight road can be laid out close to their
foot without encountering grades that are seriously objectionable. I traveled
through this region with heavily loaded wagons in the fall of 1859 without
embarrassment. The valley of the Big Horn, from latitude 43º 30' to latitude
45º 10' north, is surrounded on all sides by mountain ridges, and presents but
few agricultural advantages, The geological structure of the mountains, however,
would lead us to expect valuable mineral deposits in the ridges. This region is
totally unfit for either rail or wagon roads.
*NOTE FOR 1867.-The recent developments of this country have opened this
route by the foot of the Big Horn range, and forts are now established along
the entire line.
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14 EXPLORATION OF THE YELLOWSTONE. Between the Yellowstone and Missouri the
country is mainly broken and unattractive. Lieutenant Mullins, in his journey
from Fort Benton to Fort Union, followed as closely as possible the crest of
the divide between the waters of these rivers. I quote from his report this
language: "The country passed over in my route, with the exception of that
portion in and near the Judith mountains, and lying contiguous to the streams
forming the drainage of the same, is worthless. Although it is a much nearer
route from Fort Union to Fort Benton, than that on the other side of the river,
I think the latter far preferable for military purposes. A railroad could be
constructed along my route at comparatively slight cost, as there are no great
elevations to overcome." North of the Missouri the country is open as soon
as the stream is left, and but little difficulty will be found in traversing it
in almost any direction. The usual route for the traders between Fort Benton and
Fort Union is on this side of the Missouri, and partially in the Valley of Milk
River. My route in 1860 ran near the base of the dividing ridge of the Rocky
Mountains from the vicinity of the South Pass to Henry's lake, a distance of
about 200 miles, keeping on the eastern slope to the head of Wind River and
subsequently on the western. The summit of the ridge is lofty throughout, and I
do not believe it will ever be thought expedient to cross it by rail between
the points named. The valley, of the Three Forks offers every facility for
transit, the open country bordering upon the Gallatin, the Madison, and the
Jefferson presenting an agreeable contrast to the surrounding rugged mountains.
Low pass, near Henry's lake, through which I entered this valley, is as favorable,
as regards elevation, as any point can be for crossing the dividing crest of
the mountains. It is 1,500 feet lower than the South pass, and without any
prolonging of the route, rails can be laid from the waters of the Madison to
those of Henry's fork of the Columbia, through this pass, not using a grade of
over 50 feet to the mile.
MINERAL PRODUCTS. Very decided
evidences of the existence of gold were discovered both in the valley of the
Madison and in the Big Horn mountains, and we found some indications of its
presence also in the Black Hills, between the forks of the Shayenne. The very
nature of the case, however, forbade that an extensive or thorough search for
the precious metals should be made by an expedition such as I conAiucted
through this country. The party was composed in the main of irresponsible
adventurers, who recognized no moral obligation resting upon them. They were
all furnished with arms and ammunition, while we were abundantly supplied with
picks and shovels, and carried with us a partial stock of provisions. Thus the
whole outfit differed in no essential respect from that which would be required
if the object of the expedition had only been prospecting for gold. The powder
would serve for blasting and the picks and shovels were amply sufficient for
the primitive mining of the gold pioneer, while the arms would be equally
useful for defense and in purveying for the commissariat. It is thus evident
that if gold had been discovered in any considerable quantity the party would
have at once disregarded all the authority and entreaties of the officers in
charge and have been converted into a band of gold miners, leaving the former
the disagreeable option of joining them in their abandonment of duty, or of
returning across the plains alone, through innumerable perils. It was for these
reasons that the search for gold was at all times discouraged, yet still it was
often difficult to restrain the disposition to " prospect," and there
were moments when it was feared that some of the party would defy all
restraint. The lignite beds found so frequently upon the Powder, Platte, and
Yellowstone, are not coal, though often mistaken for it, but are not entirely
valueless as fuel. The troops formerly stationed near Platte Bridge used some
of the best variety for that purpose, and it was found quite serviceable.
AGRICULTURAL PROSPECTS. Probably over three-fourths of the country over
which the explorations of my party extended possesses a soil that, other
conditions being favorable, would render a generous return for the labors of
the husbandman. The most marked and peculiar feature of the entire region is
the absence of trees. Apart from the mountains it is only upon the immediate
banks of the streams that timber is to be found, and even under these
circumstances it is confined to a narrow belt, very rarely extending 200 yards
from the water's edge. In small ravines near the summits of certain ridges
there are occasionally found a few bushes or vines, but these are so rare that
their presence is always deemed a fact worthy of special mention. In the
mountain districts considerable timber is found which may meet the chief needs
of the country, but a very small portion of it only would be deemed valuable in
a lumber region. Considering the nature of the country, however, the timber in
the mountains is an inestimable blessing, and it will be the source of
innumerable benefits. The bunch and buffalo grasses of the plains are highly
nutritious, and afford sustenance to immense herds of buffalo. They are of quick
growth, ripen' rapidly, and by early summer are as perfectly cured as possible.
Standing in this condition throughout the winter, animals find excellent
grazing during the entire year without human aid. The quantity of grass yielded
on any given area of ground is not proportionately large, and thus the extent
of territory ranged over by animals wintering on the plains far exceeds that
which would be amply sufficient to furnish them with subsistence in more
favorable regions, but, nevertheless, it is a great grazing country, and can
support in the aggregate vast herds of cattle. The question, "Why are
these vast plains destitute of timber?" is often asked and variously
answered. The most popular explanation is the annual recurrence of immense
fires, whence the conclusion is drawn that if those fires could be avoided,
trees would at once spring up in abundance. Those who advocate this theory add
as a corollary, that if trees once cover the country, rain will become more
abundant. Sufficient data have not as yet been obtained for a final and full
discussion of this subject, and theory is yet to be substituted by facts. I
nevertheless believe that the well-known hypothesis of Professor Gayot-that the
ocean is the great source of the supply of moisture for all continents, the
water absorbed by the atmosphere being precipitated in rain by coming in
contact with the colder currents of air, and that therefore it naturally
follows, (all other things being equal,) that the interior of all large bodies
of land must be comparatively destitute of moisture by reason of remoteness
from the source of supply-is sustained in every respect by the meteorology of
this region. Mountain ranges intercepting the upper currents of air would cause
the moisture in them to be precipitated, and hence the mountainsides remote
from the ocean would be much more abundantly supplied with rain than the level
tracts in the same vicinity. While traveling from the Missouri river westward,
over the plains, in 1859, we scarcely saw a drop of rain until we reached the
Black Hills, where we encountered several hard showers. Between the Black Hills
and the Big Horn mountains we were again on the plains, and without rain. Along
the base of the latter range we found frequent showers and an abundance of clear,
beautiful water. The same remarks apply to our explorations in 1860. During a
large portion of the early part of the season we were in the mountainous
districts, and frequently drenched by heavy showers. During the latter half of
the season, while remote from the mountains, but little rain was encountered.
It is a source of extreme regret to me that the importance of this question of
the amount of rainfall in the country was not fully impressed upon my mind at
the commencement of the expedition that I might have placed a more competent
observer at Fort Pierre, and one who would have given proper attention to this
subject, as meteorological observations made at that post would, if carefully
kept, have helped greatly to settle many doubtful points. The rains were all
noted, it is true, but the amount of the fall was not accurately measured. I
have examined these notes carefully, and, from the imperfect data they embody,
estimate the annual fall of rain and melted snow at less than 20 inches.
General Humphreys, in his report on the physics and hydraulics of the
Mississippi river, gives us the result of one year and eleven months'
observations at this point, a mean annual fall of rain of 13.8 inches, and in
the same report the mean annual fall at Fort Laramie is given at 16.6 inches,
and at Fort Benton 13.1 inches. These data all point to the conclusion that the
annual fall of rain in this entire region is not probably more than 15 inches.
The immediate banks of the watercourses would feel this lack of moisture the
least. Hence it is here we find the only trees that grow upon the plains
proper. In the heads of ravines we naturally expect springs, and in such
localities a few bushes are occasionally found. Copious rains always prevail in
mountain ranges, and in them trees abound. From all these facts I am forced to
conclude that the converse of the usually accepted theory is correct, or that
the absence of forests is due to lack of moisture, instead of the latter being
a result of the former fact. I suggest that the importance of this matter is
such as to justify a thorough investigation. Careful and reliable data of the
amount of rainfall will alone determine the productiveness of the vast region
between the Missouri and the Rocky mountains.
INDIAN TRIBES. The principal Indian
tribes inhabiting the explored region are the Dakotas, or Sioux, and the
Absaroukas, or Crows. The Dakotas are by far the most numerous and powerful.
This tribe is a confederacy of ten bands, speaking the same language, but
separately organized under their own chiefs. These subdivisions are so decided
that it is not uncommon for some of the bands to be engaged in a war in which
others do not take part, although they never war upon each other. They occupy
the country on both sides of the Missouri from the mouth of the Yellowstone to
Fort Randall, and from Powder river, on the west, to Minnesota river, on the
east. Some efforts have been made to introduce Christianity and civilization
among the Dakotas of Minnesota, and their language has been reduced to writing
and a dictionary thereof published. West of the Missouri the missionary has not
yet visited them, and they know nothing of civilization save as it is presented
in rather a doubtful phase by the traders. The bands differ materially in their
disposition towards the whites. Those to the south or near the Platte seem
disposed to be peaceable, while those in the north are fierce, ill tempered,
and warlike. I am not surprised at the horrible atrocities committed by those
savages since I visited them, and I am impressed with the conviction that there
can be no permanent peace with them until the policy of the government shall be
radically changed. Some restrictions must be imposed upon the sale of arms and
ammunition. The agents must not be permitted to deal with the Indians entirely
through the traders, and to be dependent upon them for protection, guides,
transportation, interpreters, &c., &c. Moreover, when depredations are
committed by the Indians, and it becomes necessary to chastise them, treaties
should not be subsequently negotiated in which their future quiet is purchased
by large presents, as was the case in the Harney treaty of 1857, which I
consummated at Fort Pierre, as this is simply offering a premium for future
outrages, and lessens the savage's appreciation of the power and majesty of the
government. In these and many minor respects sweeping reforms are vitally
necessary in our Indian policy. The Absaroukas, or Crows, occupy the country
west of Powder River, as far as the valley of the Three Forks of the Missouri,
on both sides of the Yellowstone. They have had little or no intercourse with
the whites save traders. They are divided into three bands-the mountain, lower,
and middle-together, numbering about 3,000 souls. They have never had trouble
with the whites, and are disposed to be peaceable. They occupy the best buffalo
ground in the west, but are jealous of intrusion; and while they expressed a
willingness that I should pass through their country, were careful to add that
they could not consent to my remaining. As game becomes scarce the territory
they claim as their own, is constantly encroached upon by surrounding tribes,
and this fact leads to frequent wars. The Crows, though few in number, are
noted warriors, and thus far have been able to maintain their independence and
defend their territory. At the time of my visit, however, they evidently feared
the effect of this constant pressure, and expressed a dread of being ultimately
overpowered. Though they have seen little of civilized life, they have learned
all its vices. Nothing was safe that they could steal, and their licentiousness
was beyond conception. The Crows made (I think) just complaint that their
annuities were not delivered to them in their own country, but were taken, in
1860, up the Platte, where they were expected to receive them, being thus
compelled to pass through the country of the Sioux, their most formidable
enemies —an evidence of gross stupidity and carelessness, or something worse,
on the part of those who were responsible for this occurrence.
MISCELLANEGUS. The report, which is herewith submitted, of Professor F. V.
Hayden, now of the University of Pennsylvania, upon the geology of this
country, will be found to contain all information upon that branch up to date.
Professor Hayden accompanied the expedition, and he has made the geology of the
northwest his special study for years, having visited portions of it, not only
in company with government explorations, but also at his personal expense. His
opportunities have therefore been greater than those of any other person for
trediJng this important subject. The meteorological records of the expedition
are also submitted, and it is believed they will furnish important data for
judging of the climatic condition of the country. The botanical specimens
collected were placed in the hands of Dr. George Engleman, of St. Louis, whose
report will be found herewith. The zoological specimens were forwarded to
Professor S. F. Baird, of the Smithsonian Institution, and the report of this
gentleman thereon is likewise submitted. The fossil plants have been examined
by Professor J. S. Newberry, the fossil vertebrate by Professor Leidy, other
specimens by Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia, Professor Chester Dewey, of Rochester,
New York, and mosses by Professor Sullivan, of Columbus, Ohio. The reports and
descriptive catalogues prepared by each of these gentlemen upon their
respective topics are appended. A map of the country passed over by the
expedition was prepared in 1861, and forwarded to the department in April 1864.
The recent mining developments caused so great a demand for this map that the
department decided upon its publication. The original having thus passed out of
my hands, I, as a part of the report, annex hereto a lithographed copy received
from the bureau. My daily journal, and the reports of Lieutenant H. E.
Maynadier, Lieutenant John Mullins, Mr. J. Hudson Snowden, and Mr. J. D.
Hutton, submitted herewith, embody all the details of the incidents of the
expedition. It is but justice that in closing I should express my thanks to
every member of the expedition for the satisfactory manner in which they aided
me in the performance of the duties committed to my charge.
Respectfully submitted: W. F. RAYNOLDS,
Brevet Colonel U. S. Army,
Brevet Maj. Gen. A. A. HUMPHREYS, Chief of
Engineers, U. S. Army, Washington, D. C.
Journal of Captain W. F. Raynolds, United
States Army, Corps of Engineers.
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